Cold War: A Conflict of Superpowers

Cold War was an era post World War 2 of political and military tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. It was termed the “Cold War” because there was never a direct confrontation between the two during the affected years. 

The term “Cold War” first appeared in an essay by English writer, George Orwell. The essay was titled, “You and the Atomic Bomb”.

The agenda of this article is to focus on the different phases and events during the Cold War era. It highlights the involvement of the U.S., the Soviet Union, and their allies as part of the geopolitical tension.

U.S. and Soviet Union post World War II 

The U.S. and the Soviets fought together as part of the Allies during World War II and against the Nazi regime (Axis powers). But, the relationship between the two states was affected by the different policies and their state of affairs. 

The Allies established United Nations in 1945 for world peace.

The U.S. was very much against the Soviet communist regime led by Joseph Stalin. Stalin was seen as a tyrannical leader in the west and his ambitions were dreaded around the world. On the other hand, the Soviets were exasperated by the attitude of the U.S. against them. It is noted that for many years the U.S. did not consider the Soviet Union as part of the international community. Also, the Soviets despised the U.S. for their neutral stand in the initial years of WWII and entering the war late.

With different ideologies, the enmity seemed evident between the two superpowers. The relations between the two states were strained further when the Soviet Union started expanding in Eastern Europe while the U.S. was tagged guilty of interfering in the business of different nations by providing military aid and enhancing their military prowess meanwhile.

The world got divided into Eastern and Western Blocs where the Eastern Bloc was led by the Soviet Union and Western Bloc was led by the United States. While Western Bloc consisted of nations that had liberal and democratic governments, Eastern Bloc was influenced by communism.

Long Telegram and Containment Policy

The U.S. was apprehensive about the expansionism of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe and was looking for ways to tackle the issue. In February 1946, the U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan in Moscow sent a “Long Telegram” to Washington. The telegram was focused on what should be the U.S. policy against the Soviets. This telegram formed the basis of U.S. policy throughout the Cold War.

As per Kennan, the Soviets placed their distrust in the U.S. and that there could be no agreement between the two states. Thus, the only solution was to implement a containment policy where the Soviet Union was not allowed to implement communism. In the years to come, the U.S. followed this policy and was involved in conflicts like Korean War, Vietnam War, etc. standing against the Soviet-backed communist forces.

The Russian Revolution

Many historians believe that the Cold War started much earlier during World War I when the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia as part of the October Revolution. Russia was initially part of the Allied forces in World War I, but it later withdrew from the war after Bolsheviks seized the power in Moscow.

The peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Germany (and other Central Powers) in 1918 and formally recognized Russia’s withdrawal from WWI and ended their partnership with the Allied forces. This treaty was considered harsh on Russia but was still accepted by Bolsheviks considering the invasion by German forces, unopposed. The Allies were shocked by the turn of events and initiated an economic blockade against Russia. With its eyes on Eastern Europe and Russia backing down, Germany was seen as a major threat to the Allies. 

Bolsheviks were seen as a threat to capitalism and democracy. To contain any future opposition and expansionism, the U.S., Japan, and France invaded Russia to topple the Bolsheviks but were unsuccessful. Bolsheviks gained control over Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.

The Allies tried to isolate the Soviet Union in the international community but over the next few years, the tensions eased a bit. The economic blockade was removed and the states started doing business with the Soviets. Though the U.S. and Soviet Union’s relationship came on track much later, still the communist regime was not something that the U.S. and the western world accepted in the liberal world. The seeds of enmity had been sown.

U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt opened talks with Bolsheviks in 1933 and sent his ambassador to normalize the relations between the two states but it didn’t work out.

Start of World War II

While Stalin was working to defeat fascism, he was angered by the fact that the western powers were playing appeasement politics with Germany and Hitler. In an incident in 1939, Britain and France handed over the control of Czechoslovakia (through the Munich Agreement) to Hitler without apprising the Soviet Union. With this, the Soviet Union changed its stance and started normalizing relations with Germany.

The Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty that revolved around the occupation of Poland and its division. After signing the treaties, the Soviet Union forced Baltic countries to station its troops. Finland opposed this move which led to the invasion of Finland by the Soviet Union. As a consequence, Britain and France supported the idea of the expulsion of the Soviet Union from the League of Nations. The Soviet Union continued its oppression and annexed Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania along with some Romanian regions.

In June 1941, as part of Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union thus breaking their ties. As a consequence, the Soviet Union along with the U.S. and Allies fought against the Axis Powers in World War II. The Lend-Lease policy, it enabled the U.S. to supply fuel, food, and military aid to the Allies. Though the two superpowers fought on the same side, Joseph Stalin was still apprehensive of the U.S. intentions and its late entry into the war. The apprehension laid the base for future tension between the two Allied powers.

Yalta Conference

The powerful trio – Franklin D. Roosevelt (President of the United States), Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of United Kingdom), and Joseph Stalin (Leader of the Soviet Union) met at Tehran Conference in 1943 and discussed the future of the war against Axis powers. The trio agreed to invade northern France in 1944 to open another front against Germany. Stalin also agreed to help the Allies fight Japan in the Pacific.

The trio met again in Yalta in February 1945 when the Allies were on the brink of a win in Europe. The Allies liberated France and closed in on Germany. The Soviets had an upper hand as they had pushed the Germans back in Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria and were closing in on Berlin. Stalin had an advantage in Yalta. The agenda was to discuss the post-war world, the fate of Nazi Germany, the control of Europe, the Soviet’s entry into the war against Japan in the Pacific, and the functioning of the United Nations.

The Soviets agreed on helping the U.S. in their war against Japan in the Pacific. In return, the Allies confirmed that the Soviet Union would have control over the Japanese territory it had lost in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Soviets also asked for the recognition of Mongolia’s independence from China.

At the conference, it was decided that post surrender, Germany would be divided into four occupational zones under the control of the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union took a hard stand against any policy related to Poland. Stalin forced the fact that twice Poland had been used for the invasion of Russia by the Germans. He was not ready to give up any Polish territory it had annexed in 1939. Stalin and the Soviet Union were against the Polish government during the annexation. Though, Stalin allowed the entry of members from other Polish political parties into the provisional government created by the Soviet Union. It also allowed free elections in Eastern European countries like Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. In return, the U.S. and Britain agreed to have governments installed in Eastern European nations friendly to the Soviet Union regime. 

Another important decision that was taken by Stalin was to be a part of the United Nations based on the condition that the permanent members of the Security Council would have veto power.       

Potsdam Conference

In the months following the Yalta Conference, Stalin’s actions made it clear that he had no intention to work toward Poland’s political freedom. Any opposition to the provisional government was neutralized. In 1947, the elections were held in Poland but a puppet government of the Soviet Union was established.

The Potsdam Conference happened between July 17-August 2, 1945. The Big Three i.e. Harry S. Truman (President of the U.S. after Roosevelt’s death), Joseph Stalin (Soviet leader), and Clement Attlee (successor of Winston Churchill and then Britain’s Prime Minister) attended the conference to decide on the post-war power balance. It is said that the initial tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union started at this conference. The tension gave way to the Cold War between the two superpowers that stretched across four decades.

Reshaping Germany was one of the primary objectives of the Potsdam Conference. Stalin had pressured Roosevelt in the Yalta Conference to incur the war reparations on the defeated Germans, half of which should go to the Soviet Union. Truman was not inclined towards this demand as similar expectations had led to the rise of Adolf Hitler after WWI. Eventually, it was agreed that the Soviet Union will be allowed to take the industrial machinery from its occupation zone in Germany. Germany was expected to be divided into four occupation zones to be controlled by the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Apart from the occupation zones, the Big Three finalized that Germany would be disarmed and demilitarized. As part of the reshaping, Germans who were involved in war crimes would face trials and Nazis would be removed from the political and educational systems. 

Vienna, Austria, and Berlin were also divided into four occupation zones as part of the conference.

Stalin, Truman, and Attlee also recognized that peace treaties would be signed with German allies like Italy, Bulgaria, etc. These treaties had to be drafted by the newly created Council of Foreign Ministers. The Big Three also made it clear that Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland would expel German refugees back into Germany in a sequential and humane manner.

On July 26, 1945, Potsdam Declaration was made where the U.S., Britain, and China stated that land invasion and aerial attacks will be the course of action if Japan did not surrender. As part of the declaration, Japan had to fully surrender and the army had to be fully disarmed. Trials of Japanese war criminals and the establishment of a democratic government were also a couple of the agendas in the declaration. Apart, the Japanese industries, unrelated to war, were to be given back to the Japanese people with the resumption of international trade. 

The control of the eastern part of Germany and the establishment of communist governments in Eastern Europe gave Stalin an upper hand. This did not go down well with the western powers as they felt like losing control of Eastern Europe. However, as the talks were not over, Britain and the U.S. accepted the Soviet rule in Eastern Europe. Another incident that increased tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union was when during the conference, Truman told Stalin that the U.S. has successfully created the atomic bomb. Stalin acknowledged the fact but did not react much maybe because he already knew about the program. There was a difference in opinions that could be seen at the conference. This was the last conference between the Big Three. The lines had been drawn. The base had been set up for the Cold War.

Surrender of Japan

One week after the Potsdam Conference, the U.S. bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki which led to Japan’s surrender. As the U.S. gained control over Japan, Stalin objected to the little influence the Soviet Union had on Japan after the surrender. Stalin was also furious with the U.S. for the use of atomic bombs that destroyed the two cities and took the lives of thousands of civilians. As per some historians, Truman used his nuclear program to pressurize the Soviet Union in the international community.

Following the bombings and the war, the western powers especially the U.S. became wary of the Soviet’s attempts to establish and expand communist governments in the Eastern Bloc. The U.S. policy of “containment” of communism was established in 1946 after which the U.S. decided to do what they had to do to stop the forceful implementation of communism in countries by the Soviet Union.

Cold War: Eastern Bloc and Iron Curtain

At the initial stages of the war, the Soviet Union created the Eastern Bloc and annexed countries into its rule as Soviet Socialist Republics. These countries were eastern Finland, eastern Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and eastern Romania. The Soviets also included the states they liberated from Germany into the Eastern Bloc. These states were converted into the satellite states of the Soviet Union. The states came to be known as:

• People’s Republic of Albania
• People’s Republic of Bulgaria
• Polish’s People’s Republic
• People’s Republic of Romania
• Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
• Hungarian People’s Republic
• German Democratic Republic

The Soviet Union installed strict policies in these states. Any rebellion or opposed opinions were crushed by the Soviet forces. The people were arrested, sent to trials, and even executed. Any anti-communist activity was dealt with brute force and eradicated. The occupation of large Soviet forces in eastern Europe was seen as a threat to western powers. With the help of the U.S., the western European countries created their force to prevent the Soviet threat.

On 5 March 1946, Winston Churchill delivered his famous speech where he referred to the Soviet’s European policy as the “Iron Curtain”, meaning that the European states under Soviet Union’s influence were blocked from contact with the western world, especially western Europe. The countries on the eastern side of the Iron Curtain were under the influence of the Soviet Union. To the west of the Curtain were NATO members or the neutral states.

The Iron Curtain later became the term for the 7000 km long physical barrier (walls, fences, watchtowers, etc.). The Berlin Wall was one of the examples of the Iron Curtain and the Cold War.

Cold War: Marshall Plan

As part of the Marshall Plan, Truman signed a deal on 3 April 1948 where the U.S. government was to give $13 billion for the rebuilding of the European economy. The proposal was open to all the European nations including the Soviet Union. Ultimately, the plan was squeezed out for the Western European countries because communism was on the rise and impacting Eastern Europe under the influence of the Soviet regime. The plan in the end felt like an opposition scheme against the Soviet Union. Just months after the Marshall Plan implementation, Truman signed – National Security Act of 1947, formed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and created the National Security Council (NSC). The departments formed came to play a major role in the Cold War.

Stalin disapproved of the Marshall Plan thinking that in case of economic integration with the West, he might lose control of the Eastern Bloc. Stalin thus rejected the idea of getting economic aid under the plan.

The Soviet Union’s alternative to Marshall Plan was Molotov Plan (for economic assistance) that applied to the Soviet Union’s satellite states.

Cold War: Berlin Blockade

The western European powers including the U.S. merged West Germany’s occupation zones into and came to be called “Trizonia”. As part of reshaping Germany’s economy, the Western European countries and the U.S. decided to merge the western German zones into one federal government. A new currency “Deutsche Mark” was also introduced.

Considering the progress in West Germany, the Soviet Union installed Berlin Blockade where the food supply and other materials were stopped from moving into West Germany. As a consequence, the western powers like the U.S., Britain, France, Canada, and other countries started transporting the food and other necessary supplies in what was called as “Berlin Airlift”.

The Berlin Blockade was implemented on 24 June 1948 and was lifted on 12 May 1949.

Cold War: NATO and Atomic Age

On 4 April 1949, the U.S, Britain, France, Canada, and other eight western European states signed North Atlantic Treaty and formed what was known as North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO. 

NATO is more of a military alliance and consists of 30 countries today.

NATO was formed with the agenda of opposing any Soviet threat and protecting the Western European states from communist influence. With the refusal of the Soviet Union to help to rebuild Germany’s economy, the U.S., Britain, and France decided to merge their occupation zones and create a federal government.

The Soviet Union referred to their East German occupation zone as German Democratic Republic (GDR).

The media and press in East Germany were state-owned and had limitations. The news was pro-communist and anti-capitalist. Any liberal ideas were crushed. Major propaganda “Radio Free Europe” was started to counter what was happening in Eastern Europe.

Meanwhile, in August 1949, the Soviets created and tested their first atomic bomb in Kazakh SSR. This was the start of the atomic age for the Soviets. The incident created an effect on the Western World. The two superpowers were now Nuclear states. 

In response to Soviet’s atomic bomb testing, President Truman declared that the U.S. would make a more powerful bomb i.e. a Hydrogen Bomb. On November 1, 1952, the first H-bomb was detonated at Eniwetok atoll. The bomb was indeed a ‘Superbomb” with immense catastrophic power. Soviets followed the suit and they tested their first H-bomb on November 22, 1955. Following, there were a series of nuclear bombing tests conducted by both superpowers. 

The Cold War became bitter.

Cold War: Chinese Civil War

The communist leader, Mao Zedong (who developed the theory of Maoism), and his People’s Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai-shek’s Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist Government of China in 1949 in a Civil War. It is said that KMT was backed by the U.S. 

When Mao came to power, Stalin instantly created an alliance with him. Mao’s keynote of helping peasants was one of the primary reasons why Communism won in China. Chiang’s government did mistakes and created hostilities with various groups in China that led to its downfall.

Considering the state of affairs and communism on the rise, the Truman administration re-initiated the containment policy and increased defense expenditure almost four times.        

The document NSC 68 was drafted and presented to President Truman. It comprised of points like military budget, creation of hydrogen bomb, and installation of American troops in the Allied nations to fight and contain communist regimes.

U.S. in the 1950s created multiple alliances with Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, and other countries to have their military bases installed and counter communist activities.

Cold War: Korean War

After years of hostilities, North Korea led by its leader Kim II Sung invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950. North Korea was advised and supported by the Soviet Union while the U.S. backed South Korea with the UN forces of other countries.

Kim II Sung’s North Korean Army was called North Korean People’s Army

The U.S. and South Korea’s primary motive was to push North Korea back above the 38^th parallel and protect the sovereignty of South Korea. A success in Incheon made the U.S. believe that they could overthrow the communist regime of North Korea. China, which was closely monitoring the situation became aware of the fact that there could be a possibility of a U.S. invasion. The Chinese sent their forces to back North Korea and defeated the UN forces. The Korean War saw both the states (North and South Korea) win and lose battles during its course. Around 2.5 million people died as part of the war. 

The war came to an end on 27 July 1953, but there was no specific conclusion. The two Korean states were still in place and divided along the 38^th parallel. While Kim II Sung became the ruthless dictator of North Korea, anti-communist Syngman Rhee backed by the U.S. came to power in the South.

The war saw another incident of hostility between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The world saw that communism was not something that can be treated as a weak link. The communist states (apart from the Soviet Union) were equally capable of launching attacks and using brute force.

Cold War: Warsaw Pact, Hungary Revolution, and Berlin Ultimatum

Joseph Stalin died in 1953. The tensions eased a bit but the situation in Europe was still the same. Both the Soviets and the U.S. were ready to engage if required. While the U.S. was adamant about containment, the Soviet Union devised ways to keep communism in the Eastern Bloc. As part of the defense strategy, the Soviet Union with seven other Eastern Bloc countries signed what was popularly known as the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The pact was opposed to NATO.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a major event during the Cold War as it was the first incidence of a country in the Eastern Bloc to raise its voice against Soviet policies. The revolution began shortly after the Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, removed Matyas Rakosi, the leader of Hungary. It started with students and their demands for stable government and fresh elections. The revolution also saw the demands of Hungary exiting from the Warsaw Pact and raising questions over the Soviet’s brutal policies. The Soviet Union ultimately invaded Hungary and the rising voices of the revolution were crushed. The leaders of the revolution were arrested and executed. Thousands of Hungarians were displaced in the chaos.

Khrushchev rejected some of Stalin’s policies. He threatened the western powers with nuclear destruction. The peace deal for him was the end of Capitalism and his top priority was to enhance military strength.

The Hungarian Revolution created a sort of sour ripple effect among the communist nations too. The brute force used by the Soviet Union did not go down well with the western powers and nations within the Eastern Bloc. The Soviet Union was now seen as a major threat for western powers and some of the communist states as well.

In 1958, Khrushchev gave an ultimatum to the U.S., France, and Britain to withdraw their forces within the next six months from West Berlin. It was an attempt to unify Berlin as a free, demilitarized city. The primary motive was to attack Western Powers and transfer Western access rights to East Germans. NATO rejected the ultimatum and Khrushchev ultimately withdrew it later after the Geneva conference was scheduled to discuss Germany.

Cold War: Sino-Soviet Split

The Sino-Soviet split was one of the important events of the Cold War. The two communist powers (the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China), once allies, broke their relations and went their separate ways.

The ideological differences had always been there between the Soviet Union and China. While the Soviets followed the principles of Marxism-Leninism, China was influenced by Maoism. Maoism was more focused on peasants while Marxism-Leninism was related to urban factory workers. Still, being part of the communist influence, the two states had a decent relationship.

Things started to change when Khrushchev came to power in the Soviet Union. Mao Zedong did not like Khrushchev’s policy of targeting Stalin (de-Stalinization) after he died. While Mao saw himself as a leader of the communist world after Stalin, Khrushchev did not agree as he was the leader of one of the world’s two superpowers.

Khrushchev’s inclination towards peaceful co-existence with the capitalist world also created gaps between the two leaders. Khrushchev’s subdued approach towards the U.S. in times of tough stand made Mao uncomfortable. He thought that the Soviets lost the communist and revolutionary edge under the leadership of Khrushchev. While Khrushchev considered Mao an uncontrollable lunatic.

In 1959, Khrushchev openly supported the Tibetan people in their fight against Chinese rule. This did not go down well with Mao. At the Romanian Communist Party Congress meeting held in 1960, both Khrushchev and Mao attacked each other. Years later, Mao criticized Khrushchev for submitting to the U.S. during the Cuban Missile Crisis while Khrushchev pointed out that Mao’s policies could lead to Nuclear war. By 1962, the relationship between the two states had completely collapsed. This created a shift in Cold War. The Soviet Union and China were standing against each other while the U.S. was now at an advantage.

In 1968, the U.S. convinced the Soviets to not destroy the Chinese Nuclear sites or else there could be another world war.

Cold War: Space Race

Space exploration was one of the main talking points of the Cold War. Both the superpowers were competing for space dominance. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite through an R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile. This came as a shock for the Americans. Moreover, the power of the R-7 missile was a major concern for the U.S.

Explorer I, their first artificial satellite was launched by the U.S. in 1958. This incident is what is known to have started the Space Race between the two nations. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the U.S. space exploration agency, was formed in 1958. As a reply, the Soviets sent the first man into space in April 1961. Later in May, of the same year, Alan Shepard became the first American to enter space. John F. Kennedy later announced that the U.S. will send the first man on the moon by the end of the decade. In 1969, Neil Armstrong became that man.            

Neil Armstrong was sent to the moon as part of the Apollo 11 mission.

It is said that with the moon mission, the U.S. won the Space Race. The U.S. was ultimately praised for its efforts while the Soviets were slammed for trying to beat the U.S. in various aspects and proving their superiority.

Cold War: Relationship with Cuba and Bay of Pigs Invasion

Cuban revolution started with the 26^th of July Movement to overthrow the dictator Fulgencio Batista. Fidel Castro and Che Guevara were the main leaders of the movement. On 1 January 1959, under Fidel Castro’s leadership, Batista was removed. 

The removal of Batista did not go down well with the U.S. as they had backed Batista. The relations between Fidel Castro and the U.S. became sour soon primarily because Castro wanted less interference from the U.S. and more control over Cuba. For the next couple of years, the U.S. tried to remove Castro but was unsuccessful. In 1960, Castro shook hands with the Soviet Union and established diplomatic relations.

In January 1961, the U.S. severed ties with Cuba considering its ties with the Soviets. On 17 April 1961, under the watch of the CIA, the U.S. initiated the Bay of Pigs invasion with the help of refugee Cubans who had fled Cuba when Castro came to power. The invasion was a big disaster as things went wrong from all fronts. Within 24 hours, the exiled Cubans army surrendered. The plan of the U.S. to showcase their superiority was destroyed.

Cold War: Berlin Crisis

The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was one of the major incidents during the Cold War era. Though the occupation zones had been marked in Germany, there were still instances of East Germans migrating to West Germany. There was a loophole that allowed the migration easily. By 1961, almost 20% of East Germans had migrated to West Germany. Similar was the case with Berlin. 

By August 1961, more than 50,000 people had migrated from East to West Berlin. 

To stop this movement, on 13^th August 1961, the Soviet Union (the communist government of the German Democratic Republic (GDR)) installed a barbed wire that separated West and East Berlin. The migration was now tougher. This was the start of the construction of the Berlin Wall, one of the biggest examples of the Cold War.

Before the Berlin Wall, the West and East Berliners were able to cross the border and move around the city. Because of the migration, Khrushchev decided to close the border. It became almost impossible for the common people in East and West Germany to cross the border except in special circumstances.

Cold War: Cuban Missile Crisis

The relationship between Castro and the U.S. became worse after the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion. This, though, did not stop the U.S. in its pursuit of dethroning Castro. Under John F. Kennedy’s administration and CIA, several operations were conducted to remove Castro. One operation was Operation Mongoose, where there were planned to be a series of terrorist attacks to create destabilization. The operation was authorized in November 1961.

When the Soviets came to know about the operation in 1962, they began installing nuclear missiles in Cuba.

Kennedy responded by installing a naval blockade. Khrushchev ultimately backed down in return for the promise that the U.S. won’t invade Cuba and that they will remove their missiles from Turkey.

Any escalation in the Cuban Missile Crisis could have initiated Nuclear War. In 1964, Khrushchev was removed as the leader of the Soviet Union. He was seen as a lunatic who fiddled with the Soviet’s economy and could have brought Nuclear War upon the world.

Cold War: Vietnam War

Vietnam War is said to be a black mark in the history of the U.S. The war policy led to the deaths of thousands of Americans with no result. Ultimately, the Americans had to leave Vietnam and the troops had to be withdrawn.

Vietnam War was fought between North Vietnam backed by the Soviet Union and South Vietnam backed by the U.S. Though initially, the U.S. deployed only a thousand troops, as the war progressed, the numbers increased exponentially. By 1967, about half a million U.S. troops were in Vietnam fighting the North Vietnam communist regime.

A major incident (the Gulf of Tonkin incident) happened when the U.S. destroyer, USS Maddox was attacked by a North Vietnamese torpedo squadron. This led to a change in the U.S. policies. Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution under which the U.S. could increase the combat units in Vietnam. Also, the resolution enabled the U.S. to help any south-east Asian country being suppressed by the communist regime. Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader, increased military aid to North Vietnam. The Soviet Union had provided just enough troops necessary to fight the U.S. and South Vietnamese forces. 

A major turning point during the war was the Tet Offensive where North Vietnam decided to launch targeted attacks on South Vietnam. Thousands of North Vietnam soldiers and guerilla fighters attacked over 100+ cities of South Vietnam on 31 January 1968. Opposed to the notion, the South Vietnamese army with the help of the U.S. pushed back the North Vietnamese forces. This was a psychological win for Johnson. The war looked far from over after the Tet offensive. Though Johnson initiated peace talks with North Vietnam, they broke in between and the fighting continued. 

In January 1973, the U.S. (under the Presidentship of Richard Nixon) and North Vietnam agreed to a peace deal and by March 29, 1973, all the American ground troops had been removed. The fighting between North and South Vietnam continued though. Later, when Nixon resigned, the U.S. backed out from providing military aid to South Vietnam and cut the aid by 50%. 

On April 30, 1975, Saigon (capital of South Vietnam) fell and North Vietnam claimed victory. Vietnam finally united under a single communist regime. It was a victory for the Soviets.

Cold War: Invasion of Czechoslovakia 

The Cold War era showed what the communist regime of the Soviet Union could do. Czechoslovakia was once a satellite state of the Soviet Union. In 1968, political tension began in Czechoslovakia. The people asked for complete freedom like freedom of rights, freedom of the press, and more. They also asked for a multiparty system, more control by the elected representatives, and also withdrawal from Warsaw Pact. The period was called Prague Spring.

In August 1968, the Soviet Union with its allies invaded Czechoslovakia and crushed the movement. The invasion attracted criticism from around the world and even from some communist nations. Thousands of people left the state with the count reaching well over 200,000.

Cold War: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

The Sino-Soviet split increased the hostility between China and the Soviet Union. By 1969, tensions were brewing rapidly. The U.S. took advantage of the conflict and initiated talks with China. In 1972, Richard Nixon met Chinese leader Mao Zedong in Beijing. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Soviets and Americans were bruised because of their involvement in conflicts in other countries. The sense of retreat dawned upon both the superpowers and the tensions seemed to ease out.

Shortly after the visit to China, Nixon met Brezhnev in Moscow. Together they signed two treaties – 1) SALT I and 2) Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. 

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks treaty or agreement (SALT) was aimed at limiting ballistic missile launchers and the use of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) under other conditions. Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty was signed to limit the use of anti-missile systems that could be used to destroy incoming Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).

Nixon and Brezhnev were said to have entered into an era of “peaceful co-existence” and accepted the policy of détente. By the mid-1970s, the U.S. and the Soviet Union had agreed to come together and strengthen their economic ties and trade policies.

The fact was that Cold War was far from over. The crisis in the Middle East and Ethiopia kept the two sides under hostility indirectly. Additionally, the loss of the pro-US regimes in a few third-world nations caused a setback. Though SALT II was agreed upon and signed by the leaders (Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev) of both superpowers, it was not ratified by the nations. For the U.S., it was the invasion by the Soviet Union of Afghanistan that made the relationship complicated again between the two nations.

Through SALT II, both the superpowers agreed to limit the production of nuclear warheads, missile launchers, and any new missile programs.

Cold War: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

The pro-communist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) came to power in Afghanistan in April 1978. In the next few months, the anti-communist groups became active and revolted against the government leading to a civil war. The PDPA and Soviet forces were standing against the Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen. The IUAM received military training to fight against the PDPA and the Soviets. Considering the involvement of the Soviets, the U.S. started to back the Mujahideen covertly.

In December 1979, the Soviets assassinated PDPA-backed leader Hafizullah Amin as they did not trust him. Instead, they installed pro-Soviet leader Babrak Kamal. The Afghanistan government was a mere puppet of the Soviets.

The actions in Afghanistan led the U.S. to withdraw from the SALT II treaty and from its ratification. The embargoes were imposed on the Soviets, U.S. military spending was increased, and the U.S. withdrew from the 1980 Moscow Olympics.

Cold War: Soviet and the U.S. military buildup and economic state

Between 1980 and 1985, the tensions between the two superpowers increased. The economy of the Soviet Union had taken a hit but the Soviets did not back down from increasing their military might. The important part to note was that though the military strength of the Soviets became the largest in the world, in terms of technology, they were still behind the U.S. 

The Able Archer 83 simulation by NATO to test the nuclear release instilled fear inside the Soviets thinking the Nuclear War could be a big possibility.

The invasion of Afghanistan made the U.S. increase its military capacity. Both nations deployed missiles for any conflict. The U.S. deployed their missiles in Europe when the Soviets deployed theirs aiming at Western Europe. The Soviets had to halt their military buildup in the end because of their economic crisis. The Soviets were hit when Saudi Arabia increased its oil production which led to the decline of oil export from the Soviet Union.

While Soviets backed communist forces around the world, the U.S. was indirectly involved in covert anti-communist operations against the Soviets. The U.S. intervened in the Lebanese Civil War, Grenada, Libya, and Nicaragua to name a few.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was seen as one of the worst decisions of the Soviet Union considering the economic crisis.

Cold War: Gorbachev’s Perestroika and Glasnost

Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. The economy of the state was in tatters. Gorbachev took it upon himself to revive the failing economy. His thought process was clear he would stop the military buildup and comparison with the West, especially the U.S. and focus more on the economy’s revival.

In 1987, Gorbachev introduced an economic reform named Perestroika. The reform focused on relaxing the production quota system that had earlier made it tough for workers and industries to survive. The reform also allowed the operation of private businesses and eligibility for foreign investment. 

The other policy that Gorbachev introduced was Glasnost to bring transparency into the system including state institutions, press, and media. The policy, as per Gorbachev, was also focused on reducing corruption and abuse of power in the higher levels of the Communist Party. The transparency helped the Soviets to come in contact with the western world esp. the U.S.

These two policies helped in reducing the gap between the two superpowers.

Cold War: START I, INF, and Soviet withdrawal of troops

With the new policies in place by Gorbachev, President Ronald Reagan agreed to reinitiate the economic and military talks with the Soviet Union. The talks culminated in three summits. The first summit was held in November 1985 and was a successful one. The two leaders agreed to cut down their nuclear weapons by half the current strength. The second summit held in 1986 saw a slight disagreement on the Strategic Defense Initiative that was the brainchild of Reagan. Gorbachev wanted to eliminate the initiative. The talks were unsuccessful. 

The third summit happened in 1987 and led to the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The treaty enabled the U.S. and the Soviet Union to eliminate all their nuclear and ground-based ballistic and cruise missiles with a range between 500 and 5000 kilometers. 

With talks being successful, the two superpowers signed START I arms reduction treaty in July 1991.

START stands for Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

The treaty barred the U.S. and the Soviet Union from deploying more than 6000 nuclear warheads and 1600 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The primary motive of the treaty was to reduce and limit the number of nuclear weapons, missiles, and nuclear delivery vehicles. 

START I came into force on December 5, 1994

Considering the economic drain, Gorbachev understood that the military expenditure and maintaining troops is proving costly. Also, the oil and gas subsidies proved costly for them. Gorbachev ultimately decided that the Soviet Union would not interfere in the business of its allied states in Central and Eastern Europe.

In 1989, the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan and on 3 December 1989, the two leaders, George H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev declared the end of the Cold War at the Malta Summit. In 1990, the two states took part in the Gulf War standing on the same side.

Cold War: Pan-European Picnic

On 19 August 1989, the Hungarians and the Austrians gathered around the border between the two countries to celebrate what was known as the “Pan-European picnic”. The Hungarians and the Austrians had gathered to show their solidarity and friendship that divided the nations as part of the Iron Curtain. The people knew that a political change is slowly making its way and the Eastern Bloc communist governments are finding it hard to remain in power considering the new policies undertaken by the Soviet Union.

As part of the picnic, the East Germans joined the Hungarians and Austrians. Many East Germans found it as an opportunity to reach the Austrian border and cross to West Germany. Three months later, the Berlin Wall fell.

Cold War: The fall of the Berlin Wall

On 9 November 1989, the communist party of East Berlin announced that the East Berliners can cross the border with West Berlin. This decision was taken after Gorbachev’s efforts to stabilize relations with the West, especially the U.S. The announcement attracted both East and West Berliners. There was euphoria in the air and the Berliners celebrated the occasion. It is estimated that over 2 million East Berliners visited West Berlin that weekend.

The people used hammers and pick to chip away the wall. Later bulldozers were used to break down the wall. The most hated wall finally fell after 28 years, also marking the end of the Iron Curtain in Europe.

The reunion of East and West Germany was announced on 3 October 1990.

Cold War: Soviet Dissolution

With Gorbachev’s policies like Glasnost, the communist roots got weakened. In February 1990, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union surrendered its 73-year-old reign as per some changes to the Soviet Constitution. 

The Soviet Union started disintegrating starting with the withdrawal of the Baltic States. A failed coup in August 1991 further weakened the Soviet Union and its control over its satellite states. The Soviet Republics were now threatening to withdraw from the Union.

The Soviet Union was declared dissolved on 26 December 1991 with the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

The U.S. claimed the victory in Cold War once the Soviet Union was dissolved.

The Aftermath

After the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the U.S. came out to be the single superpower in the world. Russia, which just popped out from the Soviet Union, heavily cut down on military expenditures. The changes in the economy left many people unemployed. The recession era was worse than Great Depression. As per historians and experts, many states part of the Soviet Union have still not been able to establish the economy they had before the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Communism was deep-rooted in the states that came out of the Soviet Union. As a result, many countries did not fire communist leaders and officers in the government and other organizations. 

On the other hand, the U.S. kept alliances with different countries with almost half a million troops deployed abroad. Many people still believe that the U.S. should step back from interfering in the business of different countries.

The total military expenditure of the U.S. during the Cold War was more than $5 trillion. Not as a surprise, the expenditure of the Soviet Union was way more. Both the Soviets and the U.S. lost soldiers and civilians in wars like Vietnam War, Korean War, etc. during the Cold War era. The domestic state of affairs during these wars was bad. The U.S. people, especially during the Vietnam War, staged protests for the unanswered question of leaving behind the troops in Vietnam when winning the war seemed impossible.

The Cold War, though formally ended, left behind its traces. In a few countries, civil war broke out. Ethnic clashes became prominent after the dissolution of the communist state. Though the Eastern European powers have a stabilized economy now (after the Soviet Union dissolution), many third-world countries are still far behind economically. What will happen to them is a matter of time.

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