India & Pakistan – War of 1947/48

Introduction

The partition of India in the August of 1947 created two independent states – India and Pakistan. Expected to be a spectacle, it was overshadowed by the blood bath as millions of people crossed the state lines to find their permanent home. Thousands were left dead as part of the communal riots that rocked the two states. Some historians termed it “ethnic cleansing.”  A couple of months after the partition, the war of 1947 between India and Pakistan was fought to decide the fate of the state of Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) that remained neutral and did not accede to either India or Pakistan at the time of partition.

During the riots in August 1947, the idea of Azad Kashmir came into existence when the government tried to suppress the riots.

Before the partition, India comprised of 565 princely states. As part of the partition, each state had the option to either accede to India or Pakistan or be an independent authority. The majority of the states (almost 97%) acceded to India. Parts of big states (Punjab and Bengal) – West Punjab and East Bengal acceded to Pakistan. 

Delay by Maharaja

Maharaja Hari Singh ruled the Muslim dominated state of Jammu & Kashmir at the time of partition. When the partition took place, Hari Singh decided to remain neutral and did not accede to either India or Pakistan. Thus, the state of Jammu & Kashmir was an independent state after the partition.

Hari Singh wanted to keep Jammu & Kashmir an independent state or accede to India in case the need arose.

Pakistan did not agree to this. Jammu & Kashmir was a Muslim majority state and Pakistan wanted its accession. Maharaja Hari Singh knew Pakistan’s intentions but still played the waiting game to see things unfold.

Operation Gulmarg – The Plan

Soon after the partition of India, Pakistan began its preparation to capture the independent state of Jammu & Kashmir. The primary objective of Pakistan was to capture the Kashmir valley and the important towns of Srinagar and Jammu. This would have enabled Pakistan to have more control over J&K.

The plan consisted of recruiting Pashtun tribesmen and using them to capture Jammu & Kashmir. Pakistan wanted to distance itself from any such operation because it could have created a dent in its image among the world leaders. Pakistan Army worked behind the scenes to equip the tribesmen with arms and ammunition. The top Pakistani army officials worked closely with the militias.

The idea was to recruit 20 militias each with 1000 tribesmen and launch them from Abbottabad towards Jammu & Kashmir by late October 1947. The attacks along the border villages though had already begun. In September, the tribesmen attacked the Hindu and Sikh villages and killed many. When the government forces responded, the tribesmen fled back. Pakistan, on the other hand, continued with the Azad Kashmir agenda blaming the Kashmiri government for atrocities against the Muslim population.

The Offensive

The formal attack of the tribesmen started on 22 October 1947. Almost 5,000 men from 5 militias broke into the Kashmir Valley from Abbottabad. The Muslim soldiers part of the Kashmir state forces mutinied against their own. They killed non-Muslim fellow soldiers and sided up with the militias. 

A chunk of other militias captured the towns of Bagh, Rawalkot, Rajauri, and Beri Pattan in their offensive towards Jammu. They surrounded Poonch and also destroyed the Poonch-Jammu road.

The government of Azad Kashmir (part of Pakistan Occupied Kashmir – POK) came into existence on 24 October 1947.

One of the primary objectives of the attack was to capture Srinagar. Capturing Srinagar meant gaining access to the whole of Kashmir and Kashmir valley. 

The tribesmen that took part in the offensive had the courage and fighting spirit but no exposure to the military war. They also lacked the discipline required in the conventional battle. 

The tribesmen were not totally into the mindset of achieving the core target that was set for them by the Pakistani authorities. That is why, after capturing or invading a village/town, they plundered, looted, and committed atrocities on innocent civilians. Such an act, every time, delayed their mission by a few more days. 

The militias moved closer towards Srinagar. On the way, they captured and looted Baramulla which was 30 kilometers away from Srinagar. Because of their irresistible desire for looting and atrocities, the tribesmen reached Baramulla much later on 26 October 1947. This date marked the start of the war between India and Pakistan as it was on this date that Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession to merge Jammu & Kashmir with India.

Accession to India

The tribesmen were slowly inching towards Srinagar and Maharaja Hari Singh knew the ground situation. He knew that the Kashmiri State Forces were no match for the tribesmen. Hence, to save his life and Jammu & Kashmir from falling into the hands of tribesmen, Hari Singh decided to side with India and signed the Instrument of Accession.

The very next day after the signing of the Instrument of Accession, the Indian army entered the fray. 

India Pakistan War of 1947

Why was the date of 26 October 1947 a turning point in the course of events?

If tribesmen would not have delayed, they would have already captured Srinagar making it tough for the forces to re-capture the town. This would have given Pakistan an added advantage and more control over Jammu & Kashmir. The delay helped the Indian Army. After entering the fray, the Indian army landed in Srinagar and took the position to face the offensive. It was a tough battle now for the tribesmen.

Commencement of War

The 1947 war between India and Pakistan commenced in October 1947. After the initial assault by the tribesmen and Maharaja Hari Singh’s signing of the Instrument of Accession, the first Indian army battalion landed in Srinagar. It was the 1 Sikh Regiment. Some of the troops from the battalion immediately joined the state forces to stop the tribesmen near Baramulla. They were successful to a certain extent but could not protect the lines for long. In the meantime, the Indian Air Force dropped a few more battalions in Srinagar. It was a huge morale booster for the troops who were standing their ground against the enemy.

More troops meant more blocking positions and increased patrolling.

In one of the incidents, Pathan militias (tribesmen) attacked the defensive positions of the Indian troops in November 1947. This was the first battle between the tribesmen and the Indian Army. The Indian troops, though outnumbered, won the battle because of their brilliant tactics and courage. The Indian troops surprised the tribesmen by attacking them from three fronts. The militias withdrew leaving behind hundreds of their dead. 

Recapture of Baramulla and Uri

The Indian army recaptured Baramulla the next day after they defeated the tribesmen near the town. Later, Uri was also recaptured by the Indian forces. With Uri in control of the Indian army, the tribesmen were forced out of the Kashmir valley.

Offensive by Militias

The tribesmen also raided Poonch, an important town with strategic importance. The Indian forces fought the enemy but could not free the town. Poonch remained under the clutches of tribesmen for another year.

Pakistan Army helped Azad Kashmir forces to capture Mirpur on November 25, 1947. The incident led to the massacre of Hindus and Sikhs. The women were abducted and sent to Pakistan where they were sold or raped. The whole incident is popularly known as the 1947 Mirpur Massacre.

Parallelly, the local insurgents established the “Gilgit Islamic Republic” in Gilgit-Baltistan and also elected a provisional government. Later, they acceded to Pakistan.

There were minor clashes in the winter of 1947. Many of the Indian troops didn’t know how to tackle the extreme weather conditions and thus had a disadvantage. On the other hand, for the tribesmen and Azad Kashmir forces, the weather was not an issue.

The Azad Kashmir forces captured Jhanger in December 1947. In the meantime, more Indian troops arrived in Kashmir. By March-April of 1948, at least five brigades of the Indian Army were deployed in the region.

The Indian Army recaptured Jhanger in March 1948 and Rajauri in April 1948 as part of Operation Vijay.

In February 1948, the militias began Operation Hammer. The plan was to invade and seize Skardu, Kargil, Zoji La Pass, and Leh.

Control of the Indian Army

By this time, the Indian Army had complete control over the Kashmir valley. This alarmed Pakistani authorities. To keep the Indian army at bay, a chunk of the Pakistani army was deployed in certain 8sectors. By the Spring of 1948, a few brigades and regiments were deployed in the region by Pakistan.

In the Spring of 1948, the Indian Army planned to make an advance toward Muzaffarabad (Capital of Azad Kashmir). Of course, Pakistan wanted to keep the town at all costs. The Pakistani Army sent two brigades to help the tribesmen and Azad Kashmir forces to defend Muzaffarabad.

Setbacks for the Indian Army

The Indian Army could not capture Muzaffarabad (though they captured Tittwal and Keran) due to the high number of Pakistani soldiers and militias surrounding the town. The Indian Army pushed to recapture Poonch, but the attempt was unsuccessful.

The Indian Army recaptured Pooch in October 1948 after a more strategic response.

The Pakistan militias captured Kargil in May 1948 and Dras in June 1948. Skardu was later occupied by the militias in August 1948.  With Skardu fallen, the Pakistan militias advanced towards Leh. 

Operation Bison

In order to retake Dras and Kargil, the Indian Army initiated Operation Duck (later Operation Bison) in September 1948. The first attempt was a failure as the towns were heavily manned by the Pakistani forces and militias. The terrain of the Zoji La Pass favored the Pakistani forces. It was difficult for the Indian Army to attack the position of the Pakistani forces either from land or the sky because of the steepness of the terrain. There was also no vegetation or natural habitat to conceal the troop’s movement.

To overcome the challenges, a special armor squadron was brought in by the Indian Army. The Indian Army also brought tanks with turrets dismounted and carried in trucks secretly. The movement of trucks was carried out at night, away from the sight of Pakistani forces. Pakistan never thought that the Indian Army could bring tanks on such tough terrain. The Pakistanis were completely caught off guard by the attack. The Pakistani forces had no anti-tank weapons. The Indian Army destroyed the Pakistani bunkers and forced the militias and Pakistani forces to withdraw from the Zoji La Pass. 

The Indian Army continued its assault and retook Dras on November 15, 1948. The recapture of Dras, Kargil, Zoji La Pass, and relieving pressure from Leh were the last major activities of the war of 1947 between India and Pakistan.

Conclusion of War and Line of Control (LoC)

By the end of 1948, the Indian Army was in a commanding position. The Pakistani forces and militias were losing and were depleted of resources. In contrast, the Indian Army was ready for the offensive to capture the Pakistani territory. However, no major action was taken by either state. The Indian government, in November 1948, requested UN mediation to end the conflict. After talks and political interventions, a ceasefire came into effect on 1 January 1949 and the war of 1947 between India and Pakistan ended. The states retained the territory that was occupied by them as of 1 January 1949. It was based on this ceasefire that the Line of Control (LoC) came into effect. 

LoC is a border that segregates India and Pakistan in the Kashmir region. It is now considered an international border.

By the end of the war, it was estimated that around 1,500 Indians were killed and almost 3,000 were wounded. From Pakistan’s side, it was estimated that about 6,000 people were killed and over 14,000 were wounded.

Takeaways

Lack of discipline

There was no definite conclusion to the war of 1947 between India and Pakistan. India was said to be victorious as it was able to retain much of the Kashmir territory after Pakistan’s invasion. On the other hand, though Pakistan was successful in the initial part of the conflict, due to the lack of discipline and strategy esp. on the part of tribesmen and militia, they lost the battle and were able to capture only a minor chunk of the Kashmir territory.

The tribesmen due to their inherent thirst for plundering, looting, and killing, often deviated from the core objective of invasion. This deviated focus gave Maharaja Hari Singh ample time to think and accede to India. Also, due to the delay (because of plundering and looting) by the tribesmen, the Indian Army got time to send troops to Jammu & Kashmir and defend Srinagar which was crucial from the war perspective.

The war was there to be won for Pakistan, but due to a lack of training and discipline, the efforts went in vain. The Indian Army, which was much more advanced tactically and in discipline, recaptured most of the Kashmir towns and pushed the tribesmen and militias back. India ended the war in a commanding position.

Line of Control (LoC)

As part of the war, Azad Kashmir came into existence in October 1947 and a ceasefire line was established. After the wars of 1965 and 1971, the ceasefire line was formally called the Line of Control (LoC) as part of the Simla Agreement which was signed in July 1972.

The LoC has been the taking point between India and Pakistan for ages. The Indian and Pakistan forces have been fighting minor battles along the LoC. The Insurgency along the LoC has been the primary cause of cross-firing. There have been multiple instances of ceasefire violations and militants crossing the LoC. Thousands of troops and insurgents have been killed over the years because of the conflicts around the LoC. The Kashmir issue is still a sensitive topic for both India and Pakistan and it does not seem to resolve in the near future.